hy guys.. ^^ as usually, i will give you the summarry it's about 'methaphor' this is the explanation,,
Metaphor is a complex cognitive phenomenon. It is traditionally
thought of as a kind of comparison, although
how we make instant and internally consistent
comparisons between quite disparate things is
not really understood. No artificial system,
such as models in artificial intelligence, can
decode metaphors, and certainly no such system
can produce
them. Examples of metaphors
in everyday language abound. The expression,
You are the sunshine of my life
compares someone's beloved with sunshine;
something that is impossible in literal terms
unless that person becomes a ball of nuclear
fusion. The expression candle in the
wind likens life to a candle
flame that may easily be blown out by any
passing draft or gust. The fragility of life
is thus emphasized. But metaphor is not just
associated with poetic language or especially
high-flown literary language.
Metaphor is an extremely common and pervasive process in language
usage and its results frequently become
conventionalized.
Thus, the meanings of many words
have their origin in metaphor. For example, a
cape-like garment that protected against the
weather was given the name cloak, a
word borrowed from French, in which it meant
'bell'. The garment was given the name for a bell because
of its cut: It created a somewhat bell-like shape when draped
over the shoulders and allowed to fall
vertically to the
knees or below, where it "belled" out from the body.
Metaphor is considered by cognitive scientists to be a very
powerful conceptual tool because it allows
language users to
express abstract concepts by reference
to more concrete concepts which are more
accessible and understandable. For example, many
words for concepts
without visible correlates, such as temporal terms, are taken from the
vocabulary of spatial language. The words
long and short describe a
spatial dimension
(of, for example, a table), but
they also can describe a span of (invisible) time.
Metaphors occasionally impede
understanding, when people fail to
recognize the metaphor.
For example, petrified literally
means 'turned to stone', but now figuratively
means
'terrified' (because of the way that people and animals freeze when in
extreme fear). Those who don't know the
literal meaning and take the metaphorical
meaning as the basic one may wonder why
petrified wood has the name it does!
Sometimes what was originally a metaphor
can completely lose its metaphorical force,
when most or all speakers can no
longer see the metaphor. Such cases are
called dead metaphors or opaque metaphors.
The word understand, for example, is a
dead metaphor, having its origins in the idea
that "standing under" something was
akin to having a good grasp of it (another,
slightly less dead metaphor) or knowing it thoroughly.
Another example is
the word consider which was originally a
metaphor meaning 'consult the stars
(using astrological principles) when
making a decision', mantel
once meant
'cloak or hood to catch smoke',
gorge means throat, and so forth for thousands
more. Conceptual metaphors
Some theorists have suggested that metaphors are not merely stylistic, but that they are cognitively important as well. In Metaphors We Live By, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson argue that metaphors are pervasive in everyday life, not just in language, but also in thought and action. A common definition of a metaphor can be described as a comparison that shows how two things that are not alike in most ways are similar in another important way. They explain how a metaphor is simply understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another. The authors call this concept a "conduit metaphor". By this they meant that a speaker can put ideas or objects into words or containers, and then send them along a channel, or conduit, to a listener who takes that idea or object out of the container and makes meaning of it. In other words, communication is something that ideas go into. The container is separate from the ideas themselves. Lakoff and Johnson give several examples of daily metaphors we use, such as "argument is war" and "time is money". Metaphors are widely used in context to describe personal meaning. The authors also suggest that communication can be viewed as a machine: "Communication is not what one does with the machine, but is the machine itself." (Johnson, Lakoff, 1980).Nonlinguistic metaphors
Metaphors can also map experience between two nonlinguistic realms. In The Dream Frontier, Mark Blechner describes musical metaphors, in which a piece of music can "map" to the personality and emotional life of a person. Musicologist Leonard Meyer demonstrated how purely rhythmic and harmonic events can express human emotions.Art theorist Robert Vischer argued that when we look at a painting, we "feel ourselves into it" by imagining our body in the posture of a nonhuman or inanimate object in the painting. For example, the painting "The Solitary Tree" by Caspar David Friedrich shows a tree with contorted, barren limbs.In looking at that painting, we imagine our limbs in a similarly contorted and barren shape, and that creates a feeling in us of strain and distress. Nonlinguistic metaphors may be the foundation of our experience of visual, musical dance, and other art forms.
Historical theories of metaphor
Friedrich Nietzsche's On Truth and Lies in the Non-Moral Sense makes metaphor the conceptual centre of his early theory of society. Some sociologists have found this an essay useful for thinking about metaphors at use in society, as well as for reflecting on their own use of metaphor. Sociologists of religion, for example, note the importance of metaphor in religious worldviews, but also that it is impossible to think sociologically about religion without metaphor.Metaphor as style in speech and writing
Tombstone of a Jewish woman depicting broken candles, a visual metaphor of the end of life.
As a characteristic of speech and writing, metaphors can serve the poetic imagination, allowing Sylvia Plath, in her poem "Cut", to compare the blood issuing from her cut thumb to the running of a million soldiers, "redcoats, every one"; and enabling Robert Frost, in "The Road Not Taken", to compare a life to a journey.
Viewed also as an aspect of speech, metaphor can serve as a device for persuading the listener or reader of the speaker or writer's argument or thesis, the so-called rhetorical metaphor.
Metaphor as foundational to our conceptual system
A convenient short-hand way of capturing this view of metaphor is the following: CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (A) IS CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (B), which is what is called a conceptual metaphor. A conceptual metaphor consists of two conceptual domains, in which one domain is understood in terms of another. A conceptual domain is any coherent organization of experience. Thus, for example, we have coherently organized knowledge about journeys that we rely on in understanding life.Lakoff and Johnson (1980, 1999) greatly contributed to establishing the importance of conceptual metaphor as a framework for thinking in language. In recent years many scholars have investigated the original ways in which writers use novel metaphors and question the fundamental frameworks of thinking implicit in conceptual metaphors.
ok, guys that's the explanation about Methaphor Hope it's usefull ^^
references : Thanks to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphor
http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words04/meaning/#top
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