COLLOCATION..

Okey guys... now i will give you the explanation about collocation..

What is collocation

A collocation is two or more words that often go together. These combination just sound “right” to native English speakers. Who use them all the time. On the other hand, other combinations may be unnatural and just sound “wrong”. Look at these examples:

Natural english--- Unnatural English

The fast train

Fast food quick train

Quick food quick shower

A quick meal a fast shower

A fast meal

Why must learn collocation ?

ü Your language will be more natural and more easily understood.

ü You will have alternative and richer ways of expressing yor self

ü It is easier for our brains to remember and use language in chunks or blocks rather than as single words

Types of collocation there are several different type of collocation made from combination of verb, noun, adjective etc. Some of the most common types are:

ü Adverb + Adjective : completely sastified (NOT Down right satified)

ü Adjective+Noun : excruciating pain ( NOT a rush of a anger)

ü Noun + Verb : Lions Roar (NOT lions shout)

ü Verb + Noun : Commit Suicide ( NOT undertake suicide)

ü Verb + Expression with preposition : burst into tears ( NOT blow up in tears)

ü Verb + Adverb : wave frantically (NOT wave faveshly)

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SYNONYM, ANTONYM & HYPONYM

SYNONYM, ANTONYM & HYPONYM

·         SYNONYM

Synonym are words that have the same or very similiar meaning. All words can have a synonym. Nouns, verb, adjective, adverbs and prepositions can have the synonym as long as both words are the same of speech.

Example of synonym :

Adjective : beutiful, pretty, great,amazing,lovely,gorgeous

Nouns : House, home, dweling, residence

Verbs : meet, see, descry, go to meet

Preposition: out, outside,

·         ANTONYMS

Antonyms are word that have opposite meanings. For example, the antonym of long is short. Often words will have more than one antonym but as with synonyms it depends on the context. For instance, the word warm could have the antonym cool or chilly. In order to choose the correct antonym, you have to look at all meanings and how the word is used. Cool can be mean staylishas well as chilly so the word cool may not the best choice.

Types of antonym :

Grades of antonym are word pairs that have variations between the two opposite. For example, big and little are antonyms but there are a lot of changes before you getto the opposite meaning. Such as:

          Big, huge, bulky, full-size, slight, petite, little and other example :

a.   Rich and Poor

b.   Beauty and ugly

c.    Good and bad

d.   Late and early

e.    Days and nights

f.    Wet and dry

Relational antonyms are pairs that have a relationship. Each wouldn’t exist without the other. There can’t be aparent without a child ot it’s either all or nothing. Other example include:

a.   Servant and master

b.   Borrow and lend

c.    Come and go

d.   Parent and child

Complimentary antonyms are word pairs that have no degree of meaning. There are only two opposite possibilities. Example :

a.   Leave and arrive

b.   Question and answers

c.    Single and married

d.   Beore and after

e.    Sister and brother

·         Adding a Prefix

Sometimes an antonym can be easily made by adding a prefix. Example of antonyms that were made by adding the preffix ‘un’ are :

a.   Like and unlikely

b.   Able and unable

By adding the prefix “non” you can make these pairs:

a.   Entity and nonentity

b.   Conformist and nonconformist

·         HYPERNYM AND HYPONYM

Hypernym is a linguistics term for a word whose meaning includes the meanings of other words. In other word.  Meanwhile hyponym is in liguistics, a specific term used to designate member of a class. In other words hypernyms are general words and hyponyms are subdivisions of more general words. It means, it describe what happen when we say ‘an X is a kind of Y’ like ‘ an eagle is akind of bird, or simple an eagle is a bird’

Example :

1.    Fish (hypernym) = lion fish, nemo, childish ( hyponym)

2.    Color (hypernym)= red, white, black, pink (hyponym)

3.    Vegetable( hypernym)= broccoly, letuce, spinach, carrot (hyponym)

4.   Subject lesson (hypernym)= mathemathic, english,social

So, that all the explanation about synonym, antonym and hyponym. Wish that useful..

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Simile

Hy guys.. oke  now i will give you the explanation about simile..

Definition

A simile is a figure of speech in which two fundamentally unlike things are explicitly compared, usually in a phrase introduced by like or as.
"The simile sets two ideas side by side," said F.L. Lucas. "[I]n the metaphor they become superimposed" (Style).(The differences between similes and metaphors are considered in the observations below.)
In everyday conversations as well as in writing and formal speeches, we use similes to clarify ideas, create memorable images, and emphasize key points. "In argument," wrote poet Matthew Prior, "similes are like songs in love: / They much describe; they nothing prove" ("Alma").

• Our soldiers are as brave as lions.
• Her cheeks are red like a rose.
• He is as funny as a monkey.
• The water well was as dry as a bone.
• He is as cunning as a fox.

Simile inputs vividness into what we say. Authors and poets utilize comparisons to convey their sentiments and thoughts through vivid word pictures like a simile.

Simile Examples in Literature

Example #1

Written by Joseph Conrad,

“I would have given anything for the power to soothe her frail soul, tormenting itself in its invincible ignorance like a small bird beating about the cruel wires of a cage.”

The lines have been taken from Lord Jim. The helplessness of the soul is being compared with a bird in a cage beating itself against the merciless wires of the cage, to be free.

Example #2

In her novel To the Lighthouse, Virginia Woolf compares the velocity of her thoughts about the two men with that of spoken words.

“. . . impressions poured in upon her of those two men, and to follow her thought was like following a voice which speaks too quickly to be taken down by one’s pencil . . .”

She says both are difficult to follow and cannot be copied in words by a pencil.

Example #3

Taken from a short story Lolita written by Vladimir Nabokov,

“Elderly American ladies leaning on their canes listed toward me like towers of Pisa.”

This simile produces a humorous effect by comparing old women leaning on walking sticks with the ancient leaning tower of Pisa.

Function of Simile

From the above discussion, we can infer the function of similes both in our everyday life as well as in literature. Using similes attracts the attention and appeals directly to the senses of listeners or readers encouraging their imagination to comprehend what is being communicated. In addition, it inspires life-like quality in our daily talks and in the characters of fiction or poetry. Simile allows readers to relate the feelings of a writer or a poet to their personal experiences. Therefore, the use of similes makes it easier for the readers to understand the subject matter of a literary text, which may have been otherwise too demanding to be comprehended. Like metaphors, similes also offer variety in our ways of thinking and offers new perspectives of viewing the world.

refrence by:

http://literarydevices.net/simile/

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METHAPHOR IN SEMANTICS

hy guys.. ^^ as usually, i will give you the summarry it's about 'methaphor' this is the explanation,,

 

Metaphor is a complex cognitive phenomenon. It is traditionally thought of as a kind of comparison, although how we make instant and internally consistent comparisons between quite disparate things is not really understood. No artificial system, such as models in artificial intelligence, can decode metaphors, and certainly no such system can produce them. Examples of metaphors in everyday language abound. The expression, You are the sunshine of my life compares someone's beloved with sunshine; something that is impossible in literal terms unless that person becomes a ball of nuclear fusion. The expression candle in the wind likens life to a candle flame that may easily be blown out by any passing draft or gust. The fragility of life is thus emphasized. But metaphor is not just associated with poetic language or especially high-flown literary language. Metaphor is an extremely common and pervasive process in language usage and its results frequently become conventionalized. Thus, the meanings of many words have their origin in metaphor. For example, a cape-like garment that protected against the weather was given the name cloak, a word borrowed from French, in which it meant 'bell'. The garment was given the name for a bell because of its cut: It created a somewhat bell-like shape when draped over the shoulders and allowed to fall vertically to the knees or below, where it "belled" out from the body.

Metaphor is considered by cognitive scientists to be a very powerful conceptual tool because it allows language users to express abstract concepts by reference to more concrete concepts which are more accessible and understandable. For example, many words for concepts without visible correlates, such as temporal terms, are taken from the vocabulary of spatial language. The words long and short describe a spatial dimension (of, for example, a table), but they also can describe a span of (invisible) time. Metaphors occasionally impede understanding, when people fail to recognize the metaphor. For example, petrified literally means 'turned to stone', but now figuratively means 'terrified' (because of the way that people and animals freeze when in extreme fear). Those who don't know the literal meaning and take the metaphorical meaning as the basic one may wonder why petrified wood has the name it does! Sometimes what was originally a metaphor can completely lose its metaphorical force, when most or all speakers can no longer see the metaphor. Such cases are called dead metaphors or opaque metaphors. The word understand, for example, is a dead metaphor, having its origins in the idea that "standing under" something was akin to having a good grasp of it (another, slightly less dead metaphor) or knowing it thoroughly. Another example is the word consider which was originally a metaphor meaning 'consult the stars (using astrological principles) when making a decision', mantel once meant 'cloak or hood to catch smoke', gorge means throat, and so forth for thousands more.

Conceptual metaphors

Some theorists have suggested that metaphors are not merely stylistic, but that they are cognitively important as well. In Metaphors We Live By, George Lakoff and Mark Johnson argue that metaphors are pervasive in everyday life, not just in language, but also in thought and action. A common definition of a metaphor can be described as a comparison that shows how two things that are not alike in most ways are similar in another important way. They explain how a metaphor is simply understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another. The authors call this concept a "conduit metaphor". By this they meant that a speaker can put ideas or objects into words or containers, and then send them along a channel, or conduit, to a listener who takes that idea or object out of the container and makes meaning of it. In other words, communication is something that ideas go into. The container is separate from the ideas themselves. Lakoff and Johnson give several examples of daily metaphors we use, such as "argument is war" and "time is money". Metaphors are widely used in context to describe personal meaning. The authors also suggest that communication can be viewed as a machine: "Communication is not what one does with the machine, but is the machine itself." (Johnson, Lakoff, 1980).

Nonlinguistic metaphors

Metaphors can also map experience between two nonlinguistic realms. In The Dream Frontier, Mark Blechner describes musical metaphors, in which a piece of music can "map" to the personality and emotional life of a person. Musicologist Leonard Meyer demonstrated how purely rhythmic and harmonic events can express human emotions.
Art theorist Robert Vischer argued that when we look at a painting, we "feel ourselves into it" by imagining our body in the posture of a nonhuman or inanimate object in the painting. For example, the painting "The Solitary Tree" by Caspar David Friedrich shows a tree with contorted, barren limbs.In looking at that painting, we imagine our limbs in a similarly contorted and barren shape, and that creates a feeling in us of strain and distress. Nonlinguistic metaphors may be the foundation of our experience of visual, musical dance, and other art forms.
 

Historical theories of metaphor

Friedrich Nietzsche's On Truth and Lies in the Non-Moral Sense makes metaphor the conceptual centre of his early theory of society. Some sociologists have found this an essay useful for thinking about metaphors at use in society, as well as for reflecting on their own use of metaphor. Sociologists of religion, for example, note the importance of metaphor in religious worldviews, but also that it is impossible to think sociologically about religion without metaphor.

Metaphor as style in speech and writing

Tombstone of a Jewish woman depicting broken candles, a visual metaphor of the end of life.

Viewed as an aspect of speech and writing, metaphor qualifies as style, in particular, style characterized by a type of analogy. An expression (word, phrase) that by implication suggests the likeness of one entity to another entity gives style to an item of speech or writing, whether the entities consist of objects, events, ideas, activities, attributes, or almost anything expressible in language. For example, in the first sentence of this paragraph, the word "viewed" serves as a metaphor for "thought of", implying analogy of the process of seeing and the thought process. The phrase, "viewed as an aspect of", projects the properties of seeing (vision) something from a particular perspective onto thinking about something from a particular perspective, that "something" in this case referring to "metaphor" and that "perspective" in this case referring to the characteristics of speech and writing.
As a characteristic of speech and writing, metaphors can serve the poetic imagination, allowing Sylvia Plath, in her poem "Cut", to compare the blood issuing from her cut thumb to the running of a million soldiers, "redcoats, every one"; and enabling Robert Frost, in "The Road Not Taken", to compare a life to a journey.
Viewed also as an aspect of speech, metaphor can serve as a device for persuading the listener or reader of the speaker or writer's argument or thesis, the so-called rhetorical metaphor.

Metaphor as foundational to our conceptual system

  A convenient short-hand way of capturing this view of metaphor is the following: CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (A) IS CONCEPTUAL DOMAIN (B), which is what is called a conceptual metaphor. A conceptual metaphor consists of two conceptual domains, in which one domain is understood in terms of another. A conceptual domain is any coherent organization of experience. Thus, for example, we have coherently organized knowledge about journeys that we rely on in understanding life.
Lakoff and Johnson (1980, 1999) greatly contributed to establishing the importance of conceptual metaphor as a framework for thinking in language. In recent years many scholars have investigated the original ways in which writers use novel metaphors and question the fundamental frameworks of thinking implicit in conceptual metaphors.


 ok, guys that's the explanation about Methaphor Hope it's usefull ^^

references : Thanks to  https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphor
                   http://www.ruf.rice.edu/~kemmer/Words04/meaning/#top

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AMBIGUITY in SEMANTICS

hy guys.. as usually I will give you the explanation about semantics, ok.. for today the tittle of my topic is "ambiguity" in semantics,, please read it.. don't forget to like .. the suggestion and the advice more than needed ^^


Ambiguity is a type of uncertainty of meaning in which several interpretations are plausible. It is thus an attribute of any idea or statement whose intended meaning cannot be definitively resolved according to a rule or process with a finite number of steps. (The ambi- part of the name reflects an idea of "two" as in two meanings.)
The concept of ambiguity is generally contrasted with vagueness. In ambiguity, specific and distinct interpretations are permitted (although some may not be immediately apparent), whereas with information that is vague, it is difficult to form any interpretation at the desired level of specificity.

Semantic ambiguity happens when a sentence contains an ambiguous word or phrase—a word or phrase that has more than one meaning. In "We saw her duck" (example due to Richard Nordquist), the word "duck" can refer either

1. to the person's bird (the noun "duck", modified by the possessive pronoun "her"), or
2. to a motion she made (the verb "duck", the subject of which is the objective pronoun "her", object of the verb "saw").^[2]

For example, "You could do with a new automobile. How about a test drive?" The clause "You could do with" presents a statement with such wide possible interpretation as to be essentially meaningless.^{[citation needed]} Lexical ambiguity is contrasted with semantic ambiguity. The former represents a choice between a finite number of known and meaningful context-dependent interpretations. The latter represents a choice between any number of possible interpretations, none of which may have a standard agreed-upon meaning. This form of ambiguity is closely related to vagueness.
Linguistic ambiguity can be a problem in law, because the interpretation of written documents and oral agreements is often of paramount importance
1. Types of ambiguity
Although people are sometimes said to be ambiguous in how they use language, ambiguity is, strictly speaking, a property of linguistic expressions. A word, phrase, or sentence is ambiguous if it has more than one meaning. Obviously this definition does not say what meanings are or what it is for an expression to have one (or more than one). For a particular language, this information is provided by a grammar, which systematically pairs forms with meanings, ambiguous forms with more than one meaning (see MEANING and SEMANTICS).
There are two types of ambiguity, lexical and structural. Lexical ambiguity is by far the more common. Everyday examples include nouns like 'chip', 'pen' and 'suit', verbs like 'call', 'draw' and 'run', and adjectives like 'deep', 'dry' and 'hard'. There are various tests for ambiguity. One test is having two unrelated antonyms, as with 'hard', which has both 'soft' and 'easy' as opposites. Another is the conjunction reduction test. Consider the sentence, 'The tailor pressed one suit in his shop and one in the municipal court'. Evidence that the word 'suit' (not to mention 'press') is ambiguous is provided by the anomaly of the 'crossed interpretation' of the sentence, on which 'suit' is used to refer to an article of clothing and 'one' to a legal action.

Structural ambiguity occurs when a phrase or sentence has more than one underlying structure, such as the phrases 'Tibetan history teacher', 'a student of high moral principles' and 'short men and women', and the sentences 'The girl hit the boy with a book' and 'Visiting relatives can be boring'. These ambiguities are said to be structural because each such phrase can be represented in two structurally different ways, e.g., '[Tibetan history] teacher' and 'Tibetan [history teacher]'. Indeed, the existence of such ambiguities provides strong evidence for a level of underlying syntactic structure (see SYNTAX). Consider the structurally ambiguous sentence, 'The chicken is ready to eat', which could be used to describe either a hungry chicken or a broiled chicken. It is arguable that the operative reading depends on whether or not the implicit subject of the infinitive clause 'to eat' is tied anaphorically to the subject ('the chicken') of the main clause.


2. Ambiguity contrasted
It is a platitude that what your words convey 'depends on what you mean'. This suggests that one can mean different things by what one says, but it says nothing about the variety of ways in which this is possible. Semantic ambiguity is one such way, but there are others: homonymy (mentioned above), vagueness, relativity, indexicality, nonliterality, indirection and inexplicitness. All these other phenomena illustrate something distinct from multiplicity of linguistic meaning.


3. Philosophical relevance
Philosophical distinctions can be obscured by unnoticed ambiguities. So it is important to identify terms that do doubtle duty. For example, there is a kind of ambiguity, often described as the 'act/object' or the 'process/product' ambiguity, exhibited by everyday terms like 'building', 'shot' and 'writing'. Confusions in philosophy of language and mind can result from overlooking this ambiguity in terms like 'inference', 'statement' and 'thought'. Another common philosophical ambiguity is the type/token distinction. Everyday terms like 'animal', 'book' and 'car' apply both to types and to instances (tokens) of those types. The same is true of linguistic terms like 'sentence', 'word' and 'letter' and to philosophically important terms like 'concept', 'event' and 'mental state' (see TYPE/TOKEN DISTINCTION).
Although unnoticed ambiguities can create philosophical problems, ambiguity is philosophically important also because philosophers often make spurious claims of it. Indeed, the linguist Charles Ruhl has argued that certain ostensible ambiguities, including act/object and type/token, are really cases of lexical underdetermination. Saul Kripke laments the common strategem, which he calls 'the lazy man's approach in philosophy', of appealing to ambiguity to escape from a philosophical quandary, and H. P. Grice urges philosophers to hone the 'Modified Occam's Razor: senses are not to be multiplied beyond necessity'. He illustrates its value by shaving a sense off the logical connective 'or', which is often thought to have both an inclusive and exclusive sense.

okey, that's the explaination about the ambiguity in semantics, I hope it useful. see you next week..


Thanks to : https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambiguity & http://online.sfsu.edu/kbach/ambguity.html
for the references.
 
 
 

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